21st Century Colonialism: China's Quest for Empire

The history of colonialism in China is intricate and multifaceted, originating from its national liberation movements into a republic in the early 20th century. China experienced colonization by foreign powers, from the opium war to the Second Sino-Japanese War during the Second World War. This led to the formation of a modern, nationalist, and centralized nation under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It marked the emergence of a “new China” in 1949, establishing itself as a party state while extending its colonial rule over other sovereign states like East Turkistan and Tibet. Consequently, China, once colonized by the Manchu Empire, transitioned into a colonizer.

Initially, China's colonial presence in East Turkistan and Tibet was disguised by the communist regime's efforts to help modernize these societies and leave them to rule themselves as new and completely fletched socialist states. However, over time, Chinese colonial forces became deeply entrenched in these occupied nations, resulting in the creation of so-called “autonomous regions” that disguised its colonial rule and curtailed the political rights of nationalities like the Uyghurs and Tibetans, preventing them from regaining their independence. By labelling these nationalities as so-called “ethnic minorities,” the Chinese sought to reinforce itself as the dominant ethnic group with legitimate control over others, contradicting the espoused communist principle of liberating oppressed nationalities.

1. Colonialism, marked by settler influx from the colonizer

In China, language, especially political language, is significant in the collective consciousness and social and political practices. Each word component is meticulously selected to accurately represent the corresponding reality. Confucius, a highly influential figure in Chinese history, taught that employing appropriate terminology and naming conventions is crucial for achieving excellent and efficient governance.

In Chinese, the word for colonialism is 殖民主义. The first two characters imply that colonization involves a large-scale movement of people who maintain connections with their original homeland and use these ties to gain advantages over other residents in a foreign region. When combined with its political meaning, it signifies the movement of a large population into new territory to establish control over all aspects of life while being loyal to their original homeland and eventually replacing the existing population.

Throughout history, the Qing dynasty viewed East Turkistan as a wild, alien, and untamed land, a perception deeply ingrained in ancient historical and political literature referring to the Western Regions (西域). Some Chinese even considered East Turkistan xenophobically as terra nullius, nobody’s land, an “uninhabited” area, where Chinese prisoners were either sent as punishment (下放) or forcibly conscripted into the Qing army.

This perception acted as a veiled justification for Chinese colonialism, particularly after the Qing Dynasty's occupation of the independent state of Yette Sheher (Kashgaria) in 1877, followed by its annexation and the renaming of East Turkistan as 'Xinjiang,' meaning 'New Territory,' in 1884.

Despite the concerted efforts of the Qing and Kuomintang forces to encourage Han Chinese colonial settlements in East Turkistan, they encountered fierce resistance from the Uyghurs, led by their religious and political leaders. This opposition, rooted in the Uyghurs’ deep connection to their homeland, persisted until the establishment of the CCP’s colonial authority in the area in 1949.

The primary challenge faced by the Chinese colonial forces and administration in 1949 was the considerable cultural, social, and religious differences between the colonizers and the colonized, posing a demographic hurdle for the Chinese colonialists in East Turkistan. The Chinese settlers were greatly outnumbered by the local Uyghur and other Turkic peoples, comprising less than 4% of the population at the time of China’s occupation of East Turkistan in late 1949. In contrast, Uyghurs and other Turkic groups accounted for over 90% of the population. 

By 1953, the percentage of Chinese settlers had increased to 6%. This figure rose to over 33% by 1964, according to Chinese government statistics. According to the latest census in 2020, the Chinese settler population represented approximately 41% of East Turkistan’s population, while Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples constituted less than 60%."Despite China's historically unreliable data-sharing practices, we can still observe a significant demographic shift that occurred in 1964, with a 27% increase in the population of Han Chinese after 15 years of colonization. Many other factors may have contributed to this and subsequent increases, which have been steady and substantial as key demographics to support Chinese colonialism.

1. The Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) invaded East Turkistan under the direct leadership of Peng Dehuai based on the secret agreement between Stalin and Mao Zedong. After the invasion, the army was instructed to remain in East Turkistan. In his report on the situation in East Turkistan to Mao in December 1949, Peng Dehuai mentioned that over 240,000 troops, including PLA and KMT units under Tao Zhiyue, had stationed in the region. During the 1950s, the Chinese colonial troops forced thousands of young, unmarried women from Hunan and other provinces and cities into sexual servitude at PLA units, leading to a significant increase in the Han population in East Turkistan.

2. In 1951, the CCP decided to establish a new base for the People’s Liberation Army, choosing the site of what is now Shihezi under the name of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) in 1954 to consolidate its colonial presence, infrastructure, and stability in East Turkistan. The XPCC, a paramilitary organization comprised mostly of Han Chinese, served as a colonial paramilitary force to assert control over Uyghur and other Turkic populations in strategic areas under the guise of “maintaining peace and stability.” It also facilitated the mass migration of Han Chinese colonists through incentive policies and other technical and socio-economic development efforts.

3. Since 1949, the Chinese government has systematically implemented various incentives to encourage Han Chinese colonial migration to East Turkistan, including offering employment opportunities, housing, education, and other benefits. These incentive policies have attracted millions of Han Chinese colonists to East Turkistan.

4. The Chinese perspective views the assimilation and genocide of the Uyghurs and other local Turkic nationalities in East Turkestan as a necessary and final solution to the East Turkistan problem. As a result, Chinese authorities are actively promoting the settlement of more Chinese colonists in these areas, where millions of Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples are subjected to mass internment and genocide. Kashgar has become a crucial strategic location for China to extend its influence into Central Asia. 

Essentially, the Chinese expansion in the area can be described as settler colonialism through systematic oppression rooted in genocide and colonialism to remove an existing population of a nation, often the local inhabitants, and replace them with a new settler population.

2. Basic characteristics of Chinese colonialism

In 1955, China established the so-called “Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region” and other autonomous regions to demonstrate that it is governed as one of its provinces, albeit with some differences, granting it “autonomous status.”

However, this “autonomous status” granted to the Uyghurs has been a deceptive tactic to conceal Chinese colonization, leading the Uyghurs and the international community to believe that they would be treated equally and fairly by the Chinese.

Under the “autonomous” system, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), while atheistic, did not initially interfere with the religious traditions and practices of the Uyghurs. However, it displayed zero tolerance towards Uyghur nationalism, the ideological foundation of the independent East Turkistan Republics, which existed twice from 1933-1934 and 1944-1949, respectively. Uyghur nationalism has always been a primary target for Chinese colonialism, perceived as a significant threat to Chinese rule in East Turkistan.

Furthermore, China has distorted the history of East Turkistan by fabricating revisionist narratives. Through its educational system, China has indoctrinated Uyghurs with the belief that “Xinjiang [East Turkistan] has been part of China since ancient times,” despite the term “Xinjiang” only being imposed upon East Turkistan after1884. This narrative denies the historical nationhood of East Turkistan, which has been acknowledged in historical documents and maps from the 6th century up to 1949, and denies the legitimate state of the East Turkistan Republic that existed in the first half of the 20th century.

3. The relentless expansionism goal of China’s colonialism

Chinese colonialism is relentless in its expansion, extending beyond East Turkestan and Tibet. To achieve this goal, China employs a combination of coercive and incentive-based strategies.

Initially, China relied on its growing military strength, economic influence, and diplomatic ties to pressure neighbouring countries into ceding disputed territories. Failure to comply may result in military conflict, as seen in the cases of the Philippines and India. By fabricating revisionist narratives, China justifies its territorial claims and portrays its opponents as aggressors, garnering support from Chinese nationalists and some parts of the international community.

Furthermore, China offers economic support and political incentives to entice other nations, exemplified by initiatives like the One Belt One Road project. While initially appearing “beneficial” and “benevolent”, which was the case in Chinese colonialism in East Turkistan in the early 1950s, these promises often led to Chinese dominance and control over the recipient country in a staggered way. The situation in Sri Lanka evidences this approach.

China is expanding its influence into Central Asia, taking advantage of Russia’s diminished regional presence. This expansionist policy, rooted in China’s historical ambitions and experiences, is likely to repeat the tragedy of the East Turkistan in other countries as China continues to pursue its colonial objectives through aggressive diplomacy, false historical territorial claims, political interference, and economic incentives, without shooting a single bullet.

Conclusion

The tragic plight of East Turkistan starkly reminds us of China’s colonial mindset and actions, fitting the mold of settler colonialism. Other nations must stay vigilant against China’s persistent ambition to assert dominance through a blend of soft and hard strategies. As the influence of the U.S.-led international order wanes and China’s power expands, China’s colonial ambitions are becoming increasingly evident and troubling, with China becoming more emboldened to annex neighbouring nations under the guise of “mutual development and cooperation.”